Literature Review On Easter Island - 1549 Words

Easter Island has a unique history that outlines key theories of how man can have detrimental effects on nature. With our beliefs, customs and general life needs, societies become dependent on our environment and resources. This can result in an irreversible destruction of an environment and Easter Island has proven this to be posable. With a society becoming hugely dependant on the limited resources available and failure to understand the need to preserve these resources for future generations caused immense pressure. The population confronted problems which they neglected to address these issues where that start of a catastrophic population decline. Literature examining Easter Island is contradictive as well as abundant, this literature†¦show more content†¦Due to Easter Island’s location, the climate was considerably different to that of what the Rapa Nui people were accustomed too. As a result of the unfamiliar climate conditions agriculture become exceedingly di fficult, because of the strong winds which brought with them disturbed salt spray, cooler temperature and variation in rainfall (Hunt, 2006, p. 413) and (Wright, 2004, p. 59). These factors constructed an environment that was not suitable for a variety of foods to be cultivated; this added to the problems that the Rapa Nui people had to endure. Diamond (2005) also reiterates Wright and Hunt’s evidence supporting the same claim that Easter Island had geographical issues which become challenging for the new settlers. However, their society thrived, with a population reaching and possibly exceeding 15,000 (Hunt, 2006, p. 412). As the population grew so did the use of resources Pakandam (2009) identity’s how the Rapa Nui people begin to over exploit their resources and underestimated the problems this would cause. The Rapa Nui people relied heavily on the islands natural resources for their survival and for generations these resources continued to be consumed at a deple ting rate. Caswell (2008) points out how this civilisation was completely oblivious to the destruction they were causing. They contributed to deforestation, stripping the soils of nutrients and exploiting food sources such as populations ofShow MoreRelated The Irish Troubles: Yeats Poetry Essays2024 Words   |  9 PagesNobel Prize for literature in 1924. Yeats realized early on the oppression and austerity that both he and his fellow countrymen endured. Yeats’ father was a lawyer, who later pursued a career as a painter. In 1867, the family followed him to London, where William spent most of his youth. Upon his return to Dublin, Yeats furthered his studies at the Metropolitan School of Art. As a writer Yeats made his debut in 1885, when he published his first poems in The Dublin University Review(www.kifjastoRead MoreNoise Induced Hearing Loss, Presbycusis, And Their Interactions3598 Words   |  15 Pagesquestion the idea that presbycusis is an independent phenomenon. Another study of this vein looked at the hearing thresholds in Easter Islanders who both lived on Easter Island exclusively, or who lived on the more industrialized mainland of Chile for long periods of time. This study contained more and better controls than the Rosen study did. The population of Easter Island in the in the mid 80s when this took place considered to be the most isolated population in the world. Unlike the Sudanese populationRead MoreElectrical Design And Seismic Design Codes Essay1196 Words   |  5 Pagestectonic boundaries (Source: Earth Observatory 2000) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.7 List of tables The Chapter 1: introduction The greatest number of earthquakes occurs in Asia, America, Caribbean Islands and Europe but according to Hyndman, D and Hyndman, D (2012), earthquakes do not actually cause the death of people but the falling debris and buildings do. This is why it is important for engineers to use innovative ideas on how buildings shouldRead MoreA Brief Note On The Earthquake Of Earthquake2018 Words   |  9 Pagesseismic zones is to adhere to the seismic codes strictly, designed by engineers in order to help strengthen buildings and reduce the loss of life when an earthquake occurs. The greatest number of earthquakes occurs in Asia, America, Caribbean Islands and Europe but according to Hyndman, D and Hyndman, D (2012), earthquakes do not actually cause the death of people but the falling debris and buildings do. This is why it is important for engineers to use innovative ideas on how buildings shouldRead MoreGEA2000 REVIEW Essay example2065 Words   |  9 Pagesï » ¿GEA 2000 Fall 2013 Exam # 1 Review Questions* Introduction chapter and Globalization (PPT) 1. Alfred Wegeners supercontinent is known as: Pangaea 2. The process by which a tectonic plate consisting of less heavy rock rides up over a heavier plate is known as: Subduction 3. The current interglacial period is known as the: Holocene 4. Which water body is surrounded by a geologically-active Ring of Fire: The Pacific Ocean 5. Which of the following locations is notRead MoreSystems, Society and Sustainability Essay3714 Words   |  15 Pages3 4. Assessment Task Critical Review Attendance and participation at seminars Essay Assessment Due Value 30% 29 October 10% 60% 14 December All coursework should be submitted in hard copy to the assignment box near the Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering main office, and an electronic copy must be submitted through turnitin on the module moodle site. Critical Review Write a 1000 word paper reviewing one of the required readings. Your review should include: - a succinct outlineRead MoreRastafarian79520 Words   |  319 PagesDread Revitalization 4. The Ethos of Rastafari: Structure, Ideology, and Ritual 5. â€Å"Coming in from the Cold†: Rastafari and the Wider Society 6. Rastafari Rules: Bearers of Jamaican Popular Culture 7. Summary and Conclusions Appendix: A Review of the Literature on Rastafari Notes Selected Bibliography Index 3 7 29 41 67 79 97 117 127 141 171 185 This page intentionally left blank Rastafari This page intentionally left blank Introduction Since its emergence amongRead MoreAlcohol Marketing and Advertising25059 Words   |  101 Pagesthat the industry adopt a third-party review system as an external check on compliance with code standards, particularly to address complaints about underage appeal. The present study provides evidence that the proceedings of the Code Review Board of the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States (DISCUS) provide a critical review of spirits company compliance with the DISCUS Code. Additionally, Coors Brewing Company now participates in a third-party review program run by the Dispute ResolutionRead MoreCrm in Supermarkets30832 Words   |  124 Pages Despite the potential to radically change the way supermarket business is conducted, there is also the possibility that CRM could be marginalized by supermarket companies as just another management fad. This study employed a combination of literature review, retailer surveys, interviews with supermarket and manufacturer executives, and consumer focus groups to examine CRM in the U.S. supermarket industry. Our research focused on identifying the current status of CRM programs, on the role of CPGsRead MoreCase Studies67624 Words   |  271 Pagesinexperienced with the case method, you may need to alter your study habits. A lecture-oriented course may not require you to do intensive preparation for each class period. In such a course, you have the latitude to work through assigned readings and review lecture notes according to your own schedule. However, an assigned case requires significant and conscientious preparation before class. Without it, you will be unable to contribute meaningfully to in-class discussion. Therefore, careful reading and

Immigration Important to the Success of America Essay

The United States of America has the largest foreign-born population in the world. With nearly thirteen percent of the total population being foreign-born, one may find it hard to imagine an immigrant-free country (U.S. Bureau of the Census). Immigration has been an integral part of the United States’ overall success and the country’s economy since it was established and without it, would have never been founded at all. Although there are some negative issues associated with immigration and many native-born Americans believe to be more of a problem than a solution, overall it actually has a positive effect. Immigrants in America, among other things, fill jobs where native-born Americans may not want to work or cannot work, they contribute†¦show more content†¦This is substantiated by the recent â€Å"Summary of the 2011 Annual Reports† that shows an increase in immigration will result in a longer guaranteed payout. One common misconception among native-born Americans is that with a virtually unlimited supply of â€Å"outsiders† willing to do a job for less than the native who is currently doing that same job, the value of the low-skilled work force is decreased as a whole. This, in turn, leads to the belief that immigrants are depressing the wages of that working class. However, over the last twenty years, numerous studies have been conducted in order to find out if this is true or not and in most cases the findings indicate that, â€Å"Immigration seems to have no effects on the wages or employment of white natives and very slight, if any, negative effects on the wages and employment of native blacks.† (Waldinger, David, Lichter 19) This means that in the working class most affected by immigration, the least educated and least skilled native-born Americans, the changes in wages are hardly noticeable due to immigrants. In actuality, the â€Å"overall low-skilled native wages are 2.4 percent lower as a result of immigration† (Orrenius 21). Additionally, in many cases the job or profession is one that would not appeal to a native-born American, such as lawn services, construction, or janitorial work. This supply of cheap labor actually benefits AmericanShow MoreRelated History of Latino/a Immigration to the U.S. Essay1475 Words   |  6 Pagesstrong for immigrants in America. Equal access to opportunities allows immigrants to achieve the American dream. Their success correlates with America’s success because of the contributions immigrants provide to America. Unfortunately, the current immigration policy in America denies many immigrants the American dream. It is crucial to understand the historical context of immigration in America. Initially, most immigrants were from Europe and were not restricted by any immigration laws. Now, most immigrantsRead MoreAMH 2097 Paper 21345 Words   |  6 Pagesarrived to America in the 1600s. The first wave of immigration consisted of the Germans, Irish and Chinese. The WASPs created a way to measure the success of each immigrant group. They acknowledged four factors of success that would show them whether an immigrant group was successful or not. The first factor of success was how much money an immigrant had when they came to America. The more money they came to America with, the more successful they were. Another factor of an immigrant’s success was howRead MoreThe American Dream985 Words   |  4 PagesThe belief of the American Dream has been around for several years, but still the question lingers: is the â€Å"promise† to the immigrants being fulfilled? Many argue that America is the land of greater opportunities and fr eedom. However, in the news, the only stories that are reported are the immigrant success stories, not the ones who failed. It does not take into account the new ideas erupting in the government, and the racial bias immigrants are faced with. Although some may claim that the AmericanRead MoreMedia Reaction to Immigration1471 Words   |  6 PagesMedia Reaction to Immigration Name Course Date Submitted Media Reaction to Immigration: The issue of illegal immigration is one of the hotly debated topics in almost every facet of society, especially among political leaders. This topic has also received huge media attention and reaction in the recent past including an article written by William Finnegan and published by The New Yorker. The article focuses on addressing the issue of borderlines and is based on the move by 17 Congress membersRead MoreCultural Values And The American Culture1440 Words   |  6 Pageswhat are their values and beliefs? all this is part of human curiosity, which leads us to understand different phenomenons in life. America, for example, is the symbol of ethnic diversity. It has often been called a land of immigrants because of the immense numbers of people from all around the world who had moved and settled there. These people who immigrated to America, brought different languages, cultures, beliefs and values. All these factors have a huge influence in shaping the American cultureRead Mor eImmigration : An Influential Aspect Of American History1172 Words   |  5 Pageshistory, immigration has been a constant and significant force in the country. From the early beginnings of the nation in the seventeenth century to the present day, millions of people, from a variety of different and distinct nations and cultures, made the great journey to the United States to pursue greater economic and social opportunities. Immigration has been an influential aspect of American history. These immigrants have enhanced and contributed greatly to the fabric and the story of America. TheyRead MoreBenefits Of Immigration Reform During The United States Essay1651 Words   |  7 PagesBenefits of Immigration Reform Today, the need for immigration reform questions many economic, political and moral realities in our country. In particular, the current immigration reform as a major issue in the Latino community. Each area will be examined with an emphasis on how each is beneficial to the economy, as well as touching on the differences between the key opinions around immigration reform. Latinos make up a large portion of the people impacted by the outcome reform bill. The MigrationRead MoreThe Immigration Of The United States989 Words   |  4 PagesFor many centuries now immigration has been important to the key developments of North American countries. From the English settlers from the original 13 colonies, to the French who settled into what is now modern day Canada, even the Irish and German settlers during the Industrial revolution, all the way to Mexicans trying to find work in the booming U.S. economy after the second world war, immigrants have always flocked to America in search of a bet ter life. The Immigration issues doesn’t just stopRead MoreA Nation Of Immigrants By John F. Kennedy1262 Words   |  6 Pagesimmigrants. Immigrants have strengthened the United states by boosting the revenue of American businesses and raising the job opportunities for American workers. The contribution of immigrants strengthening the U.S economy has led the nation to favor immigration, that is if the process of citizenship is done correctly and legally. In the book â€Å"A Nation of Immigrants† by John F. Kennedy states â€Å" Every ethnic minority, in seeking its own freedom, helped strengthen the fabric of liberty in American Life.†Read MoreJemimah Ejikeme,. Professor Clack. En 207A. 27 March 20171320 Words   |  6 PagesJemimah Ejikeme, Professor Clack EN 207A 27 March 2017 The Puritan: Is the 21st Century America influenced by the Puritan ideology? American Puritanism began from a crusade for reform in the Church of England, which had a great socio-economic, political, theological and ethical influence on American as a Nation. A close focus on how the 21st century America emulated the Puritan moral/value and how these vales has been intertwined with the thinking process the average American. This comparative

SCMP 2 Promote The Wellbeing And Resilience Of Children...

Promote the Wellbeing and Resilience of Children and Young People 1.1 explain the factors that influence the wellbeing of children and young people There are many factors that influence the wellbeing of children and young people. Some of these are evident in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. A child should have the ability to have secure and nurturing attachments that offer emotional warmth and security from a care giver. This will offer security and safety to the young person. As well as secure attachments, the young person will benefit from having positive relationships with wider family and friends, these relationships can have a huge impact on the young person’s self-esteem. The young person should live in an environment that is†¦show more content†¦2.2 explain how to support children and young people to identify with their own self-image and identity Young people should have positive relationships with primary care givers, education staff and peers as this leads to higher levels of self-worth, high self-esteem and a positive self- image. This positive outlook on life may lead to that person becoming more approachable and popular individual. Structure, routine and boundaries should be put in place and positive reinforcement is to be used, this allows an understanding of the young person’s position within their society and leads to a more settled and well balanced individual. Positive and dependable role models allow the young person to model the behaviours of well-balanced, well behaved and already resilient individuals. Positive encouragement offered to young people may lead to higher levels of self-esteem and enables the young person to develop an optimistic attitude about learning new skills and having the ability to keep trying when things become challenging. Regular attendance to education should be encouraged, ‘ Schooling may be vital in enabling children to make the best ofShow MoreRelatedLearning and Social Care Essay examples30870 Words   |  124 PagesCACHE Qualification Specification CACHE Level 3 Diploma for the Children and Young People’s Workforce (QCF) CACHE Level 3 Diploma for the Children and Young People’s Workforce (QCF) CACHE  © Copyright 2011 All rights reserved worldwide.    Reproduction by approved CACHE centres is permissible for internal use under the following conditions: CACHE has provided this Qualification Specification in Microsoft Word format to enable its Centres to use its content more flexibly within their own

Corporate Responsibility and Ethics Sustainability and Public Relatio

Question: Discuss about theCorporate Responsibility and Ethicsfor Sustainability and Public Relations. Answer: Introduction Corporate Responsibility and Ethics means to integrate corporate self-regulation into a business model. It is a self regulatory mechanism so that the business can monitor its activeness to ensure the compliance related to law and ethical standards. It aims at increasing long term profit of the organization, building shareholders trust by maintaining positive relations and high ethical standards with the public to avoid legal risk and business harm. Many consumers believe that business should not only focus on making profit but should also take social implications of the business activities into consideration. It is the obligation of the corporate to maximize positivity and minimize negativity of its business impact on the society. The laws; and rules and regulations that basically encourages corporate to maintain high ethical standard, attitude and values are the basic ethical conduct (Mermod, A and Idowu, S, 2013). It is the duty of the corporate managers to maintain these ethical codes of conduct in an organization. The conflicts and problems that take place in a corporate can be avoided if the managers work accordingly to the ethical values and conduct prescribed by the company. There are good reasons for maintaining ethical values in an organization. Maintaining ethical conduct will ensure higher profits. It will increase the reputation of the business (Rajko, A, 2013). Ethical behaviour will be helpful in enhancing leadership (Woodstock Theological Centre, 1990). When ethical choices are taken, it will minimize the stress of the managers as well as of other employees. The Advantages of Business Ethics Business ethics means to realise the difference between the wrong and right business practices in a corporate (Hill, B, 2016). When the principles of honesty and fairness are applied in a business it will develop the relationship of the workers and employees in a positive way. The advantages are as follows: Build Customer Loyalty Consumers can let a company take a negative advantage of them only once, when they realise that they have been treated in an unfair manner like if the customers are over charged or defective product is offered, they will not become a repetitive customer of the company. (Ferrell, O and Fraedrich, J, 2016). Therefore it is very important for a company to maintain ethical values to build customer loyalty and to attract more customers. Positive Work Environment The employees of the company should be honest and fair since the very beginning, from the interview itself (Stanwick, P and Stanwick, S, 2015). Ethical employees will help in maintaining sustainability in a corporate. Trust factor will be developed between the employees and the employers (Giacalone, R, Jurkiewicz, C and Dunn, C, 2005). Ethical Issues Faced by Shell in Nigeria The multinational Corporations are usually been accused of indulging in conflicts related to human rights and many environmental issues relating to operations, and due to this they have become the targets of many social activists. Shell group of companies normally operates in the region of Nigeria. It is a multinational oil corporation which is generally being accused of irresponsibility in their operations that are seriously injustice, creates unhappiness and pain, and violates the basic human rights and hindrance to promote flourishing lives to the society. Shell is engaged in polluting the environment by producing harmful substances that are detrimental to the health and live. The Government has highlighted the unethical conduct of Shell in Niger Delta that is against the human rights. The parent company of Shell, Royal Dutch Shell is denying its responsibility to control the pollution of its subsidiary. Due to this Shell Nigeria has been challenged by the Dutch Court, for violating the human rights and the non compliance of environment laws (Williams, C, 2009). Shell should ethically start working with the Nigerian Government and other Foreign Government to eliminate the negative impact of its operations which are responsible in causing great environmental damages in Nigeria and other local communities by making excessive release of Carbon dioxide that causes global warming. Role of Government in Business Ethics The Government plays a vital role in encouraging the business to maintain ethical values and standards in their activities. We cannot assume that a corporate can follow the ethical values perfectly without the strict governance of the government (Pompper, D, 2015). The enforcement of various laws and policies concerning corporate social responsibility and ethical code by the government is mandatory to bring sustainability in social values. The Government has the following role: Legislating Role To ensure the compliances of corporate to follow ethical obligations, legislation is necessary so that the public do not suffer because of unethical and dishonest business practices (Breslin, C, 2016). The legislature rules helps in preventing the business practices related to bribery and dishonesty. It was developed that those business which do not have legislature rules imposed by the government tends to engage in more of unethical business practices (Morrison, J, 2015). Supervisory Role In the context of business ethics, Government has plays a supervisory role. When organizations merges or are taken over by another business it results in anti- competitive behaviour, as a result that organization becomes a monopoly in the market thus engaging itself in the act of unethical business practices (Brink, A, 2011). These practices are detrimental to the interest of the general public. To avoid unfair practices in such acquisition and merger, Government tends to play a supervisory role. Incentivizing Role The government has introduced the system of providing incentives to those corporate who complies with the ethical code prescribed by the government (Sullivan, P, Smith, M and Esposito, M, 2012). The companies having environmentally friendly practices are often awarded because of its effective environmental policies concerning ethical standards. Those companies that are wasting energy and cannot maintain proper waste disposal system are not entitled for such incentives (Fleming, P, Jones, M, 2012). The Impact of Corporate Responsibility on Organizational Sustainability According to the local communities, Shells operation is regarded as ethically unacceptable due to lack of environmental protection and degradation of their own operations (Burger, A. (2011). Shell is a partner and a participant of National Society of that country where it operates. Therefore it is the moral obligation of the company to maintain all the rights and obligation for the aid of local government and communities; and to help them in establishing policies; rules and regulations to protect the environment by using the resource and knowledge that is available to Shell. As we know that the Government has started to take actions against companies that are causing harm to the environment by the explosion of harmful substances and creating pollution (Cross, F and Miller, R. (2008); Shell has a moral obligation to promote and ensure a clean environment to live in for the future generations. Shell no longer keep interest only in making profit but also works for the betterment of the community and promote the basic rights of the society by providing a safe and clean environment to live. It has made progress in this context, but is a little away from making it fully accomplished. Many underdeveloped countries lack the existing rules and regulations which are related to environmental concern and social issues. So it becomes the duty of the corporate community to maintain adequate standards and not to be accused of immoral and unethical policies. Currently Shell Oil not only works to increase production but also makes sure that the company is not engaged in creating pollution that becomes harmful in maintaining sustainability. Other industries should implement plans and policies like Shell and promote sustainability by maintaining standards and ethical values in their corporate strategy planning. Shell has begun to maintain this and hence it should be continued. Initiative Taken to Stop the Unethical Practices of Shell in Nigeria Various social active groups have been formed to stop the harmful activities performed by Shell in Nigeria. These groups are working by conducting research and imparting education related to the environmental issues and social values of the oil industry. A few of these social group includes- Environmental Rights Action and Niger Delta Human and Environmental Rescue Organization. These groups along with other social group aims at bringing a positive change in the ethical standards and values that Shell should follow. Various efforts have been taken by Shell to avoid such issues. Shell now takes initiative to clean the oil spills, and reduced the gas flaring. Shell is now showing self determination to comply with the ethical standards imposed by the government and other social activists. Conclusion Corporate Responsibility and Ethics plays a very important role in maintaining sustainability and stability in business activities. A good business ethical code of conduct will help the company to have competitive advantage over their competitors. Customers will be attracted and will show interest in making investment in shares by establishing long term relations with the concerned company. If a company is not maintaining good ethical policies the company will have a bad reputation in the market, it can also cause into a scandal related to fall in stock price, low morale among employees and can also lead shut down of business activities. Local communities in Nigeria are highly disappointed by the unethical practices followed by Shell. Shell is engaged in polluting and degrading the environment; and makes it a harmful place for future generation to live in. Due to the strict action imposed by the Government of Nigeria on Shell, it is now showing helpful hands in resolving this environmental problem. Shell along with many other social activists in Nigeria cleans the oil spills, and also aims at reducing air flaring. Self realisation is very important to maintain ethical standards and value in an organization, by creating social corporate responsibility Shell has been successful in creating a feeling of morale and dedication among the workers. Employees are willing to work together to achieve the predetermined goals of Shell. References Breslin, C. (2016). Role of Government in Business Ethics, Viewed 27 September 2016 from https://smallbusiness.chron.com/role-government-business-ethics-65128.html done Hill, B. (2016). The Advantages of Ethical Behaviour in business, Viewed 27 September 2016 from https://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-ethical-behavior-business-21067.html done Pompper, D. (2015). Corporate Social Responsibility, Sustainability and Public Relations: Negotiating Multiple Complex Challenges. Routledge. Fleming, P, Jones, M. (2012). The End of Corporate Social Responsibility: Crisis and Critique. SAGE. Stanwick, P and Stanwick, S. (2015). Understanding Business Ethics. SAGE Publications. Giacalone, R, Jurkiewicz, C and Dunn, C. (2005). Positive Psychology in Business Ethics and Corporate Responsibility. IAP. Morrison, J. (2015). Business Ethics: New Challenges in a Globalised World. Palgrave Macmillan. Brink, A. (2011). Corporate Governance and Business Ethics. Springer Science Business Media. Sullivan, P, Smith, M and Esposito, M. (2012). Business Ethics: A Critical Approach: Integrating Ethics Across the Business World. Routledge. Ferrell, O and Fraedrich, J. (2016). Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making Cases. Cengage Learning. Burger, A. (2011). Shell in Nigeria: Oil, Gas, Development Corporate Social Responsibility, Viewed 27 September 2016 from https://www.triplepundit.com/2011/07/shell-nigeria-csr-corporate-social-responsibility Cross, F and Miller, R. (2008). The Legal Environment of Business: Text and Cases- Ethical Regulatory, Global and E-Commerce Issues. Cengage Learning. Mermod, A and Idowu, S. (2013). Corporate Social Responsibility in the Global Business World. Springer Science Business Media. Williams, C. (2009). Shell must clean up its act in Nigeria, Viewed 27 September 2016 from https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cif-green/2009/dec/04/shell-nigeria-oil-spills Woodstock Theological Centre (1990). Creating and Maintaining an Ethical Corporate Climate. Georgetown University Press. Rajko, A. (2013). Behavioural Economics and Business Ethics: Interrelations and Applications. Routledge.